Fig. 2. Extracellular vesicles-promoted signaling in kidney homeostasis and pathogenesis. EVs can participate in kidney physiological processes, such as transference of aquaporins. EVs can also regulate apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in tubular and collecting duct cells under pathological conditions, induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and contribute to tubulointerstitial fibrosis. In addition, the cross-talk between renal cells and other cell sources (immune cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells) can also contribute to kidney injury.